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Diabetes
Short Text
Introduction
This pathway covers the management of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, including pre-conception care, diabetes in pregnancy and foot care (some of the recommendations for type 1 diabetes are for children and young people).
Diabetes care is typically complex and time-consuming, drawing on many areas of healthcare management. The necessary lifestyle changes, the complexities of management, and the side effects of therapy make self-monitoring and education for people with diabetes central parts of management.
Foot care is particularly important in people with diabetes because delay in the diagnosis and management of foot problems increases morbidity and mortality and contributes to a higher amputation rate.
Diabetes in pregnancy is associated with risks to the mother and developing fetus. Additional care should be offered in the antenatal, intrapartum and postnatal periods to women with diabetes and their babies.
Source guidance
The NICE guidance that was used to create the pathway.
Diabetic foot problems: inpatient management. NICE clinical guideline 119 (2011)
Neuropathic pain - pharmacological management. NICE clinical guideline 96 (2010)
Type 2 diabetes - newer agents (partial update of CG66). NICE clinical guideline 87 (2009)
Type 1 diabetes. NICE clinical guideline 15 (2004)
Type 2 diabetes - footcare. NICE clinical guideline 10 (2004)
Ranibizumab for treating diabetic macular oedema (rapid review of technology appraisal guidance 237). NICE technology appraisal guidance 274 (2013)
Fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant for the treatment of chronic diabetic macular oedema after an inadequate response to prior therapy. NICE technology appraisal guidance 271 (2013)
Exenatide prolonged-release suspension for injection in combination with oral antidiabetic therapy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. NICE technology appraisal guidance 248 (2012)
Liraglutide for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. NICE technology appraisal guidance 203 (2010)
Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. NICE technology appraisal guidance 151 (2008)
Guidance on the use of patient-education models for diabetes. NICE technology appraisal guidance 60 (2003)
Guidance on the use of long-acting insulin analogues for the treatment of diabetes – insulin glargine. NICE technology appraisal guidance 53 (2002)
Allogeneic pancreatic islet cell transplantation for type 1 diabetes. NICE interventional procedure guidance 257 (2008)
Quality standards
Diabetes in adults quality standard
These quality statements are taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statements
Structured education
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes and/or their carers receive a structured educational programme that fulfils the nationally agreed criteria from the time of diagnosis, with annual review and access to ongoing education.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes and/or their carers receive a structured educational programme that fulfils the nationally agreed criteria from the time of diagnosis, with annual review and access to ongoing education.
Process
a) Proportion of people with diabetes who are offered structured education from the time of diagnosis.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator offered structured education from the time of diagnosis.
Denominator – the number of people diagnosed with diabetes in the past 12 months.
b) Proportion of people with diabetes who start structured education from the time of diagnosis.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator starting structured education from the time of diagnosis.
Denominator – the number of people diagnosed with diabetes in the past 12 months.
c) Proportion of people with diabetes who complete structured education from the time of diagnosis.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator completing structured education from the time of diagnosis.
Denominator – the number of people diagnosed with diabetes in the past 12 months.
d) Proportion of people with diabetes whose structured education has been reviewed and reinforced annually.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator whose structured education has been reviewed and reinforced within the past 12 months.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes diagnosed over 12 months ago.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure that staff are enabled to offer structured educational programmes that fulfil nationally agreed criteria and are ongoing and accessible to all people with diabetes and/or their carers.
Healthcare professionals ensure they offer structured educational programmes that fulfil nationally agreed criteria to people with diabetes and/or their carers as part of their ongoing care.
Commissioners ensure they commission structured educational programmes that fulfil nationally agreed criteria and are ongoing and accessible to people with diabetes and/or their carers.
People with diabetes and/or their carers receive a diabetes education course to suit their needs that is delivered by trained staff. A healthcare professional should check every year whether the person would find further diabetes education useful, and diabetes education should continue to be available.
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 87 recommendation 1.1.1 (key priority for implementation).
NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendations 1.8.1.1 and 1.8.1.6.
NICE clinical guideline 10 recommendation 1.1.1.6.
Data source
Structure
Local data collection. Contained within NICE clinical guideline 87 Audit support clinical criteria, criteria 1-4.
Process
a), b), c) and d) Local data collection. Contained within NICE clinical guideline 87 Audit support clinical criteria, criterion 1. The National Diabetes Audit collects data on structured education.
Definitions
A patient educational programme should meet five key criteria laid down by the Department of Health and the Diabetes UK Patient Education Working Group:
- Any programme should be evidence-based, and suit the needs of the individual. The programme should have specific aims and learning objectives. It should support the learner plus his or her family and carers in developing attitudes, beliefs, knowledge and skills to self-manage diabetes.
- The programme should have a structured curriculum that is theory-driven, evidence-based and resource-effective, has supporting materials, and is written down.
- The programme should be delivered by trained educators who have an understanding of educational theory appropriate to the age and needs of the learners, and who are trained and competent to deliver the principles and content of the programme.
- The programme should be quality assured, and be reviewed by trained, competent, independent assessors who measure it against criteria that ensure consistency.
- The outcomes from the programme should be regularly audited.
Full criteria available from Joint Department of Health and Diabetes UK Patient Education Working Group (2005) Structured Patient Education in Diabetes: Report from the Patient Education Working Group.
Patient education should also take into account the overarching principles of NICE technology appraisal 60.
There are a number of structured educational programmes available for diabetes. Some programmes will be more suitable for type 1 diabetes, and others for type 2 diabetes. Educators should select a programme and time its delivery tailored to the needs of the learner and/or the carer.
Equality and diversity considerations
All information about treatment and care, including a structured patient educational programme, should take into account age and social factors, language, accessibility, physical, sensory or learning difficulties, and should be ethnically and culturally appropriate. It should also be accessible to people who do not speak or read English. If needed, people with diabetes should have access to an interpreter or advocate.
Nutrition and physical activity advice
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes receive personalised advice on nutrition and physical activity from an appropriately trained healthcare professional or as part of a structured educational programme.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes receive personalised advice on nutrition and physical activity from an appropriately trained healthcare professional or as part of a structured educational programme.
Process
a) Proportion of people with diabetes who receive personalised advice on nutrition from either an appropriately trained healthcare professional or as part of a structured educational programme.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving personalised advice on nutrition from either an appropriately trained healthcare professional or as part of a structured educational programme.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
b) Proportion of people with diabetes who receive personalised advice on physical activity.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving personalised advice on physical activity.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure that diabetes services provide access to personalised advice on nutrition and physical activity from an appropriately trained healthcare professional or as part of a structured educational programme.
Healthcare professionals ensure that personalised advice on nutrition and physical activity is provided to the person with diabetes when required.
Commissioners ensure they commission from a diabetes care pathway that incorporates access to personalised advice on nutrition and physical activity from an appropriately trained healthcare professional or as part of a structured educational programme.
People with diabetes are given advice on diet and exercise from a trained healthcare professional or as part of their diabetes course.
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 87 recommendation 1.2.1.1 (key priority for implementation).
NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendations 1.8.3.1 and 1.8.3.2.
Data source
Structure
Local data collection.
Process
a) and b) Local data collection. Contained within NICE clinical guideline 87 Audit support clinical criteria, criterion 2.
Definitions
An appropriately trained healthcare professional is one with specific expertise and competencies in nutrition. This may include, but is not limited to, a registered dietitian who delivers nutritional advice on an individual basis or as part of a structured educational programme.
The healthcare professional should provide and time the advice about nutrition and physical activity appropriate to the needs of the person with diabetes.
Equality and diversity considerations
All information about treatment and care, including advice on nutrition and physical activity, should take into account age and social factors, language, physical, sensory or learning difficulties, and should be ethnically and culturally appropriate. It should also be accessible to people who do not speak or read English. If needed, people with diabetes should have access to an interpreter or advocate.
Care planning
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes participate in annual care planning which leads to documented agreed goals and an action plan.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements and provision of resources to ensure that people with diabetes participate in annual care planning which leads to documented agreed goals and an action plan.
Process
a) Proportion of people with diabetes who are offered annual care planning including documenting and agreeing goals and an action plan.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator offered annual care planning including documenting and agreeing goals and an action plan.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
b) Proportion of people with diabetes who participate in annual care planning including documenting and agreeing goals and an action plan in the past 12 months.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator participating in annual care planning including documenting and agreeing goals and an action plan in the past 12 months.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
Outcome
Patient satisfaction with diabetes care using validated patient survey criteria.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure people with diabetes participate in annual care planning with documented agreed goals and an action plan, and to support this, provide training for healthcare professionals.
Healthcare professionals ensure they are competent to support people with diabetes to participate in their care and enable them to agree on specific achievable goals and an action plan in annual care planning.
Commissioners ensure services are commissioned that provide training for healthcare professionals and encourage people with diabetes to participate in their own care.
People with diabetes are involved in annual planning for their own care, which includes agreeing on the best way to manage their diabetes and setting personal goals.
Source clinical guideline references
Adapted from Joint Department of Health and Diabetes UK Care Planning Working Group (2006) Care Planning in Diabetes.
Data source
Structure
Local data collection.
Process
a) and b) Local data collection.
Outcome
Local data collection.
Definitions
Adapted from Joint Department of Health and Diabetes UK Care Planning Working Group (2006) section 3 Care Planning in Diabetes.
Care planning is defined as a process that actively involves people in deciding, agreeing and sharing responsibility for how to manage their diabetes. It aims to help people with diabetes achieve optimal health by partnering with healthcare professionals to learn about, manage, and cope with diabetes and its related conditions in their daily lives.
Care planning is underpinned by the principles of patient-centeredness and partnership. It is an ongoing process of communication, negotiation and joint decision-making in which both the person with diabetes and the healthcare professional(s) make an equal contribution to the consultation.
At each care planning consultation the healthcare professional(s) gives the patient the opportunity to:
- share information about issues and concerns
- share results of biomedical tests
- discuss the experience of living with diabetes and address needs to manage obesity, food and physical activity
- receive help to access support and services agree a plan for managing diabetes
- address individual priorities and goals
- identify priorities and/or goals that are jointly agreed including jointly setting a goal for HbA1c
- identify detailed specific actions in response to identified priorities which include an agreed timescale.
Care planning incorporates:
- nutritional advice
- discussing psychological wellbeing
- managing obesity
- structured education
- screening for complications
- smoking cessation advice
- physical activity
- Expert Patients Programme
- agreeing goals for HbA1c
- agreeing plans for managing diabetes
- discussing goals
- follow-up support by telephone.
A guide to implementing care planning in diabetes is available from Diabetes UK, NHS National Diabetes Support Team, Department of Health and Health Foundation (2008) Year of Care - Getting to grips with the Year of Care: a practical guide.
Equality and diversity considerations
All information about treatment and care, including care planning, should take into account age and social factors, language, physical, sensory or learning difficulties, and should be ethnically and culturally appropriate. It should also be accessible to people who do not speak or read English. If needed, people with diabetes should have access to an interpreter or advocate.
Glycaemic control
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes agree with their healthcare professional a documented personalised HbA1c target, usually between 48 mmol/mol and 58 mmol/mol (6.5% and 7.5%), and receive an ongoing review of treatment to minimise hypoglycaemia.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes are able to agree with their healthcare professional a documented personalised HbA1c target, usually between 48 mmol/mol and 58 mmol/mol (6.5% and 7.5%), and receive an ongoing review of treatment to minimise hypoglycaemia.
Process
a) Proportion of people with diabetes with a measured HbA1c.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator with a measured HbA1c.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
b) Proportion of people with diabetes who have an agreed target for HbA1c including a recently documented HbA1c.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator with an agreed target for HbA1c including a recently documented HbA1c.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
c) Proportion of people with diabetes achieving their HbA1c target.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator achieving their HbA1c target.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
d) Proportion of people with diabetes who have received a review of treatment to minimise hypoglycaemia in the previous 12 months.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving a review of treatment to minimise hypoglycaemia in the previous 12 months.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
Outcomes
a) Proportion of people with diabetes with a documented HbA1c between 48 mmol/mol and 58 mmol/mol (6.5% and 7.5%).
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator with a documented HbA1c between 48 mmol/mol and 58 mmol/mol (6.5% and 7.5%).
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
b) Reduction in complications associated with diabetes.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure local arrangements are in place to allow people with diabetes to agree and document a target HbA1c with their healthcare professional and receive ongoing review of treatment to minimise hypoglycaemia.
Healthcare professionals ensure they agree and document a target HbA1c with people with diabetes and ensure ongoing review of treatment to minimise hypoglycaemia.
Commissioners ensure they commission diabetes services that allow people with diabetes to agree and document a target HbA1c with their healthcare professional and receive ongoing review of treatment to minimise hypoglycaemia.
People with diabetes agree a target for HbA1c (a measure of blood sugar over 2-3 months), usually between 48 mmol/mol and 58 mmol/mol (6.5% and 7.5%), with their healthcare professional, and have their treatment reviewed continuously to help avoid low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia).
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 87 recommendation 1.3.1. (key priority for implementation).
NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendation 1.9.2.4.
H2.Data source
Structure
Local data collection. DiabetesE and The National Diabetes Audit collect data on HbA1c levels.
Process
a), b), (c) and (d) Local data collection. DiabetesE and The National Diabetes Audit collect data on HbA1c levels.
Outcome
a) DiabetesE and The National Diabetes Audit collect data on HbA1c levels. Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) indicator DM 26 The percentage of patients with diabetes in whom the last IFCC-HbA1c is 59 mmol/mol (equivalent to HbA1c of 7.5% in DCCT values) or less (or equivalent test/reference range depending on local laboratory) in the preceding 15 months.
b) Local data collection. Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) collects data on complications associated with diabetes and the English National Screening Programme for Diabetic Retinopathy collects data on incidence and severity of retinopathy in England.
Definitions
The way in which HbA1c results are reported has changed from a percentage (%) to measurement in millimoles per mol (mmol/mol). For further information and a conversion chart please see A change in reporting your HbA~1c~ results. Information for people with diabetes.
Healthcare professionals should document clinical reasons why the usual target for HbA1c, usually between 48 mmol/mol and 58 mmol/mol (6.5% and 7.5%) is not appropriate.
Equality and diversity considerations
All information about treatment and care, including agreeing a target for HbA1c, should be tailored to the individual. It should be accessible to people with physical, sensory (for example, visual impairment) or learning disabilities, and to people who do not speak or read English. If needed, people with diabetes should have access to an interpreter or advocate. Healthcare professionals will also need to consider cultural and religious requirements in relation to self-management. For example, some religions include periods of fasting, and people with diabetes will need appropriate information about managing their blood glucose levels during these periods.
Medication
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes agree with their healthcare professional to start, review and stop medications to lower blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipids in accordance with NICE guidance.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes agree with their healthcare professional to start, review and stop medications to lower blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipids in accordance with NICE guidance.
Process
a) Proportion of people with diabetes who have received a medication review in the past 12 months.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving a review of medication in the past 12 months.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
b) Proportion of people with diabetes whose blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipids are managed in accordance with NICE guidance.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator whose blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipids are managed in accordance with NICE guidance.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
c) Proportion of people with diabetes whose medications are not managed according to NICE guidance who have medical notes documenting clinical reasons for exception.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator who have medical notes documenting clinical reasons for exception.
Denominator- the number of people with diabetes whose medications are not managed according to NICE guidance.
Outcome
Proportion of people with diabetes with a documented HbA1c between 48 mmol/mol and 58 mmol/mol (6.5% and 7.5%).
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator with a documented HbA1c between 48 mmol/mol and 58 mmol/mol (6.5% and 7.5%).
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure that people with diabetes are able to agree with their healthcare professional to start, review and stop medications to lower blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipids in accordance with NICE guidance.
Healthcare professionals ensure the person with diabetes understands and agrees with them to start, review and stop medication to lower blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipids in accordance with NICE guidance.
Commissioners ensure they commission services that enable the person with diabetes to agree with their healthcare professional to start, stop and review blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipid lowering medications in accordance with NICE guidance.
People with diabetes agree with their healthcare professional to start, review and stop medications to lower blood glucose, blood pressure, and blood lipids (blood fats).
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 87 recommendations 1.5-1.8.
NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendation sections 1.9 and 1.10.
Data source
Structure
Local data collection. DiabetesE collects data on medication.
Process
a) Local data collection. Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) indicator DM 15 The percentage of patients with diabetes with a diagnosis of proteinuria or micro-albuminuria who are treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (or A2 antagonists).
b) Local data collection. QOF DM 26 The percentage of patients with diabetes in whom the last IFCC-HbA1c is 59 mmol/mol (equivalent to HbA1c of 7.5% in DCCT values) or less (or equivalent test/reference range depending on local laboratory) in the preceding 15 months. QOF DM 31 The percentage of patients with diabetes in whom the last blood pressure is 140/80 or less in the preceding 15 months. QOF indicator DM 17 The percentage of patients with diabetes whose last measured total cholesterol within the previous 15 months is 5mmol/l or less. NICE clinical guideline 87 Audit support clinical criteria, criteria 6-21, 23-27, 30 and 34.
Process measure a) and b) will be measured by the next phase of the National Diabetes Audit in which all diabetes medications will be collected at patient level.
c) Local data collection.
Outcome
DiabetesE and The National Diabetes Audit collect data on HbA1c levels. Quality and Outcomes Framework indicator (QOF) DM 26 The percentage of patients with diabetes in whom the last IFCC-HbA1c is 59 mmol/mol (equivalent to HbA1c of 7.5% in DCCT values) or less (or equivalent test/reference range depending on local laboratory) in the preceding 15 months.
Definitions
People with diabetes will start, review and stop medications in accordance with NICE clinical guidance 87 recommendations 1.5 -1.8. and NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendation sections 1.9 and 1.10.
Healthcare professionals managing medications for people with diabetes should document the clinical reasons why NICE guidance is not followed for starting and stopping medications to lower blood glucose, blood pressure and blood lipids.
Insulin therapy
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
Trained healthcare professionals initiate and manage therapy with insulin within a structured programme that includes dose titration by the person with diabetes
Quality measure
Structure
a) Evidence of local arrangements for a structured programme for initiating and managing insulin therapy including training and support for the healthcare professionals and the patients.
b) Evidence of local arrangements and locally agreed criteria for healthcare professionals to demonstrate and document training and competencies in initiating and managing insulin.
Process
a) Proportion of people with diabetes starting insulin therapy that is initiated by a trained healthcare professional.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator starting insulin therapy initiated by a trained healthcare professional.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes requiring insulin therapy.
b) Proportion of healthcare professionals initiating insulin therapy who have documented appropriate training for starting and managing insulin.
Numerator – the number of healthcare professionals in the denominator having documented appropriate training for starting and managing insulin.
Denominator – the number of healthcare professionals initiating and managing insulin therapy.
c) Proportion of people with diabetes who receive ongoing structured support to initiate and manage insulin therapy.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving ongoing support to initiate and manage insulin therapy.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes starting insulin therapy.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure adequate staff training in initiating and managing insulin therapy within a structured programme.
Healthcare professionals ensure they are competent in insulin initiation and ongoing insulin management within a structured programme by accessing training and are able to support people with diabetes in managing their treatment.
Commissioners ensure they commission services that provide training and assess ongoing competency of healthcare professionals for initiating and managing insulin therapy within a structured programme.
People with diabetes who need insulin receive help and support from trained healthcare professionals, including help with starting on insulin and managing their treatment. This should include advice on adjusting the dose of insulin according to their blood sugar levels.
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 87 recommendation 1.7.2.3. (key priority for implementation).
NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendation section 1.9.3.
Data sources
Structure
a) and b) Local data collection. DiabetesE collects data on insulin therapy. Contained within NICE clinical guideline 87 Audit support organisational criteria, criterion 6.
Process
a), b) and c) Local data collection.
Definitions
Therapy with insulin includes insulin pump therapy.
A structured programme employing active titration of insulin doses encompasses for the patient:
- structured education
- continuing telephone support
- frequent self-monitoring
- adjusting doses
- understanding diet
- managing hypoglycaemia
- managing acute changes in plasma glucose control values
- support from an appropriately trained and experienced healthcare professional
- injection technique including site selection and care
- managing sick days.
And should be:
- evidence-based
- quality assured
- built around a structured curriculum
- delivered by trained educators
- audited.
Trained healthcare professionals must demonstrate and document appropriate training in initiating and managing insulin therapy. This may include evidence of continuing professional development, knowledge and skills framework (KSF) and evidence of supervision.
Equality and diversity
All information about treatment and care, including insulin therapy, should take into account age and social factors, language, accessibility, physical, sensory or learning difficulties, and should be ethnically and culturally appropriate. It should also be accessible to people who do not speak or read English. If needed, people with diabetes should have access to an interpreter or advocate. The needs of people who have experienced visual loss should be considered by healthcare professionals initiating and managing insulin therapy, and they may require additional ongoing support and referral to low vision services. Additional support should also be considered for people who have a physical impairment that may impede self-management of insulin.
Complications
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes receive an annual assessment for the risk and presence of the complications of diabetes, and these are managed appropriately.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes are assessed annually for the risk and presence of complications, and these are managed appropriately.
Process
Proportion of people with diabetes who are assessed annually for the risk and presence of complications of diabetes, and these are managed appropriately.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving an assessment for the risk and presence of complications during the previous 12 months and are managed appropriately.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
Outcome
Reduction in the incidence of complications associated with diabetes.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure that diabetes services recall and review people with diabetes for the risk and presence of complications and provide resources to enable assessment and appropriate management.
Healthcare professionals ensure they are competent to assess people with diabetes for the risk and presence of associated complications and manage them appropriately.
Commissioners ensure they commission services that assess for the risk and presence of complications associated with diabetes and manage them appropriately.
People with diabetes are checked for additional health problems associated with diabetes (for example, eye, nerve or kidney damage, cardiovascular disease, fatty deposits in the blood vessels or sexual problems), and for the risk of developing these problems. Any risks or problems identified are properly managed.
Source clinical guideline references
Recommendations on the management of complications associated with diabetes are contained within NICE clinical guideline 87 recommendation sections 1.8 – 1.4 and NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendation sections 1.10 – 1.11.
Data source
Structure
Local data collection. DiabetesE collects data on complications.
Process
Local data collection. DiabetesE collects data on complications.
The National Diabetes Audit collects data on complications. Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) DM 9 The percentage of patients with diabetes with a record of the presence or absence of peripheral pulses in the previous 15 months. QOF indicator DM 10 The percentage of patients with diabetes with a record of neuropathy testing in the previous 15 months. QOF indicator DM 13 The percentage of patients with diabetes who have a record of micro-albuminuria testing in the previous 15 months. QOF indicator 21 The percentage of patients with diabetes who have a record of retinal screening in the previous 15 months. QOF indicator DM 22 The percentage of patients with diabetes who have a record of estimated glomerular filtration rate or serum creatinine testing in the previous 15 months.
Outcome
Local data collection. The National Diabetes Audit and Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) collect data on complications associated with diabetes.
Definitions
Complications associated with diabetes may include:
- retinopathy
- neuropathy – sensory and autonomic
- nephropathy
- cardiovascular disease
- peripheral arterial disease
- sexual dysfunction.
Equality and diversity considerations
Services for diabetes should be designed and tailored to take into account local ethnicity and cultural requirements to ensure accessibility to all communities.
Psychological problems
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes are assessed for psychological problems, which are then managed appropriately.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes are assessed for psychological problems, which are then managed appropriately.
Process
a) Proportion of people with diabetes assessed for psychological problems.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving an assessment for psychological problems in the past 12 months.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes.
b) Proportion of people with diabetes and psychological problems whose psychological problem is managed appropriately.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator whose psychological problem is managed appropriately.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes and psychological problems.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure that diabetes services assess and appropriately manage psychological problems in people with diabetes.
Healthcare professionals ensure they have adequate training to assess psychological problems in people with diabetes and are familiar with referral pathways to ensure psychological problems are managed appropriately.
Commissioners ensure they commission diabetes services that assess and appropriately manage psychological problems in people with diabetes.
People with diabetes are checked for psychological problems (such as depression, anxiety, fear of low blood sugar, eating disorders and problems coping with the diagnosis) and any problems identified are properly managed.
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 87 recommendation 1.2.2.1.
NICE clinical guideline 91 recommendation section 1.1.3.
Data source
Structure
Local data collection.
Process
a) Local data collection. Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) DEP 1 The percentage of patients on the diabetes register and/or the CHD register for whom case finding for depression has been undertaken on one occasion during the previous 15 months using two standard screening questions.
b) Local data collection.
Definitions
Psychological problems in people with diabetes may include:
- depression
- anxiety
- injection-related anxieties
- fear of hypoglycaemia
- eating disorders
- problems coping with diagnosis.
Equality and diversity considerations
Treatment and care should take into account a patient's needs and preferences. People with psychological problems and diabetes should have the opportunity to make informed decisions, including advance decisions and advance statements, about their care and treatment, in partnership with their practitioners. If patients do not have the capacity to make decisions, practitioners should follow the Department of Health's advice on consent and the code of practice that accompanies the Mental Capacity Act.
At-risk foot
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes with or at risk of foot ulceration receive regular review by a foot protection team in accordance with NICE guidance, and those with a foot problem requiring urgent medical attention are referred to and treated by a multidisciplinary foot care team within 24 hours.
Quality measure
Structure
a) Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes with or at risk of foot ulceration receive regular review by a foot protection team in accordance with NICE guidance.
b) Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes with a foot problem requiring medical attention are treated by a multidisciplinary foot care team within 24 hours.
Process
a) Proportion of people with diabetes with foot ulceration who receive regular review by a foot protection team in accordance with NICE guidance.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator who receive regular review by a foot protection team in accordance with NICE guidance.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes with foot ulceration.
b) Proportion of people with diabetes at risk of foot ulceration who receive regular review by a foot protection team in accordance with NICE guidance.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator who receive regular review by a foot protection team in accordance with NICE guidance.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes at risk of foot ulceration.
c) Proportion of people with diabetes with a foot problem requiring urgent medical attention referred to and treated by a multidisciplinary foot care team within 24 hours.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator referred to and treated by a multidisciplinary foot care team within 24 hours.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes with a foot problem requiring urgent medical attention.
d) Proportion of people with diabetes with an urgent foot problem referred to a multidisciplinary foot care team who are treated in accordance with NICE guidance.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator treated in accordance with NICE guidance.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes with an urgent foot problem referred to a multidisciplinary foot care team.
Outcome
a) Reduction in incidence of foot ulceration.
b) Reduction in lower limb amputation rates.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure access to appropriate treatment and review by a foot protection team for people with diabetes with or at risk of foot ulceration in accordance with NICE guidance, and ensure adequate systems and services are in place for referring people with diabetes who have a foot problem requiring urgent medical attention from primary care to a multidisciplinary foot care team within 24 hours.
Healthcare professionals ensure they identify and manage people with diabetes with or at risk of foot ulceration in accordance with NICE guidance, and ensure they are aware of local arrangements for accessing a multidisciplinary foot care team within 24 hours for people with diabetes who have a foot problem requiring urgent medical attention.
Commissioners ensure they commission services that provide access to regular review by a foot protection team for people with diabetes with or at risk of foot ulceration in accordance with NICE guidance, and that provide access to a multidisciplinary foot care team for people with diabetes who have a foot problem requiring urgent medical attention within 24 hours.
People with diabetes who have foot ulcers, or are at risk of developing foot ulcers, have regular check-ups from a team specialising in foot protection, and are seen and treated by a specialist healthcare team within 24 hours if they have foot problems needing urgent medical attention.
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 10 recommendations 1.1.4.3, 1.1.5.2, 1.1.5.3, 1.1.5.4, 1.1.5.5 (key priorities for implementation), 1.1.4.1, 1.1.5.1 and 1.1.6.11.
NICE clinical guideline 119 recommendations 1.2.3, 1.2.4 (key priority for implementation) and 1.2.9.
Data source
Structure
a) and b) DiabetesE collects data on foot services.
This will also be included in the National Diabetes Footcare Audit from 2013.
Process
a) and b) Local data collection. Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) DM 9 The percentage of patients with diabetes with a record of the presence or absence of peripheral pulses in the previous 15 months. QOF indicator DM 10 The percentage of patients with diabetes with a record of neuropathy testing in the previous 15 months. QOF indicator DM 13
c) and d) Local data collection. The process measures will also be included in the National Diabetes Footcare Audit from 2013.
Outcome
a) Local data collection.
b) The National Centre for Health Outcomes Development measures admissions to hospital of patients with diabetes where a lower limb amputation is undertaken. Further structure and process data is being developed within the pilot phase of the new National Diabetes Foot-Care Audit and full implementation is planned within NDA2 from 2013.
Definitions
(NICE clinical guideline 10, recommendation 1.1.2.4 classifies foot risk as:
- low current risk (normal sensation, palpable pulses)
- at increased risk (neuropathy or absent pulses or other risk factor)
- at high risk (neuropathy or absent pulses plus deformity or skin changes or previous ulcer
- ulcerated foot.
NICE clinical guideline 10, recommendation 1.1.4.1 defines a 'foot protection team' as a team with expertise in protecting the foot, typically including podiatrists, orthotists and foot care specialists.
NICE clinical guideline 119 recommendations 1.2.3 and 1.2.4 state that the multidisciplinary foot care team should consist of healthcare professionals with the specialist skills and competencies necessary to deliver inpatient care for patients with diabetic foot problems and should normally include a diabetologist, a surgeon with relevant expertise in managing diabetic foot problems, a diabetes nurse specialist, a podiatrist and a tissue viability nurse, and should have access to specialist services.
Regular review will be in accordance with NICE guidance if it follows NICE clinical guideline 10 recommendations 1.1.4.1-1.1.5.5
Urgent foot problems will be managed in accordance with NICE guidance if treatment follows NICE clinical guideline 10 recommendations 1.1.6.1-1.1.6.11 and NICE clinical guideline 119 recommendations section 1.2.
Inpatient care
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes admitted to hospital are cared for by appropriately trained staff, provided with access to a specialist diabetes team, and given the choice of self-monitoring and managing their own insulin.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that all inpatients with diabetes are cared for by appropriately trained staff, provided with access to a specialist diabetes team, and given the choice of self-monitoring and managing their own insulin.
Process
a) Proportion of staff on inpatient wards who are appropriately trained to care for people with diabetes.
Numerator – the number of staff in the denominator appropriately trained in the care of people with diabetes.
Denominator – the number of staff on inpatient wards.
b) Proportion of inpatients with diabetes who are provided with access to a specialist diabetes team.
Numerator – the number of inpatients in the denominator provided with access to a specialist diabetes team.
Denominator – the number of inpatients with diabetes.
c) Proportion of inpatients with diabetes on insulin therapy who are given the choice of self-monitoring and managing their own insulin.
Numerator – the number of inpatients in the denominator given the choice of self-monitoring and managing their own insulin.
Denominator – the number of inpatients with diabetes on insulin therapy.
Outcomes
a) Reduction in incidents relating to insulin causing harm.
b) Increase in patient satisfaction with their care in hospital.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure adequate staff training in diabetes care and access to a specialist diabetes team where required to ensure people with diabetes admitted to hospital are cared for by appropriately trained staff, provided with access to a specialist diabetes team, and given the choice of self-monitoring and managing their own insulin.
Healthcare professionals ensure they are skilled and appropriately trained to care for people with diabetes and have access to a specialist diabetes team, and ensure that people with diabetes have the choice of self-monitoring and managing their own insulin.
Commissioners ensure they commission secondary services that assess the competency of the workforce, and have adequate staff education programmes to ensure people with diabetes admitted to hospital are cared for by appropriately trained staff, provided with access to a specialist diabetes team, and given the choice of self-monitoring and managing their own insulin.
People with diabetes who are admitted to hospital are cared for by trained staff, including a specialist diabetes team if needed, and are given the choice of self-monitoring their blood sugar levels and, for those on insulin therapy, managing their own insulin.
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendations 1.12.3.1-1.12.3.4.
Data source
Structure
Local data collection. DiabetesE collects data on inpatient care.
Process
a), b) and c) Local data collection. The National Diabetes Audit collects data on inpatient care.
Outcome
a) The National Patient Safety Agency National Reporting and Learning System collect data on incidents relating to insulin causing harm.
b) The National Diabetes Inpatient Audit collects data on the clinical care and experiences of people with diabetes who were inpatients in hospital.
Definitions
'Appropriately trained staff' are defined as those with specific competencies in caring for people with diabetes.
People with diabetes admitted to hospital should be given the choice of self-monitoring and managing their own insulin as appropriate to the person with diabetes.
Diabetic ketoacidosis
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis receive educational and psychological support prior to discharge and are followed up by a specialist diabetes team.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis receive educational and psychological support prior to discharge and are followed up by a specialist diabetes team.
Process
a) Proportion of people admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis who receive educational and psychological support by a specialist diabetes team prior to discharge.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving educational and psychological support by a specialist diabetes team prior to discharge.
Denominator – the number of people admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis.
b) Proportion of people admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis who receive follow-up within 30 days after discharge by a specialist diabetes team.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator receiving follow-up within 30 days after discharge by a specialist diabetes team.
Denominator – the number of people discharged from hospital following an admission for diabetic ketoacidosis.
Outcome
Reduction in readmission rates within 12 months for people admitted with diabetic ketoacidosis.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure patients admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis receive educational and psychological support prior to discharge with follow-up after discharge by a specialist diabetes team.
Healthcare professionals ensure they know how to access a specialist diabetes team for all patients admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis that provides educational and psychological support prior to discharge.
Commissioners ensure they commission a service providing access to a specialist diabetes team prior to a patient's discharge with follow-up after discharge for all patients admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis.
People with diabetes admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis (a serious condition caused by a shortage of insulin) receive information and psychological support from a specialist diabetes team before and after they leave hospital.
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendations 1.12.3.1.and 1.12.5.1.
Data source
Structure
Local data collection.
Process
a) and b) Local data collection.
Outcome
Local data collection. The National Diabetes Audit measures the incidence, prevalence and re-occurrence of ketoacidosis. Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) collects data on readmission rates.
Definitions
The opinion of the Topic Expert Group is that follow-up for people admitted to hospital with diabetic ketoacidosis should take place within 30 days of discharge by a specialist diabetes team.
Equality and diversity
All information about treatment and care, including advice on avoiding diabetic ketoacidosis, should take into account age and social factors, language, accessibility, physical, sensory or learning difficulties, and should be ethnically and culturally appropriate. It should also be accessible to people who do not speak or read English. If needed, people with diabetes should have access to an interpreter or advocate.
Hypoglycaemia
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
People with diabetes who have experienced hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention are referred to a specialist diabetes team.
Quality measure
Structure
Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that people with diabetes who have experienced hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention are referred to a specialist diabetes team.
Process
Proportion of people with diabetes who have experienced hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention who are referred to a specialist diabetes team.
Numerator – the number of people in the denominator referred to a specialist diabetes team.
Denominator – the number of people with diabetes who have experienced hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention.
Outcome
a) Reduction in number of people with diabetes requiring medical attention as a result of a hypoglycaemic episode.
b) Reduction in rate of recurrence of an episode of hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention over 12 months.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure adequate provision for referral to a specialist diabetes team for people with diabetes who have experienced hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention.
Healthcare professionals ensure people with diabetes who have experienced hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention are referred to a specialist diabetes team.
Commissioners ensure they commission services that have clearly defined protocols to identify all people with diabetes who have experienced hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention and refer them to a specialist diabetes team.
People with diabetes are seen by a specialist diabetes team for advice and support after experiencing low blood sugar needing medical attention (for example, from a GP, paramedic, accident and emergency department or out-of-hours services).
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 15 recommendations 1.9.5.5 and 1.9.5.7
Data source
Structure
Local data collection. DiabetesE collects data on hypoglycaemia.
Process
Local data collection.
Outcome
a) and b) Local data collection.
Definitions
'Hypoglycaemia requiring medical attention' refers to an episode of severe hypoglycaemia that requires treatment by a GP, paramedics, accident and emergency department or out-of-hours services.
Equality and diversity
All information about treatment and care, including advice on avoiding hypoglycaemia, should take into account age and social factors, language, accessibility, physical, sensory or learning difficulties, and should be ethnically and culturally appropriate. It should also be accessible to people who do not speak or read English. If needed, people with diabetes should have access to an interpreter or advocate.
Preconception care
This quality statement is taken from the diabetes in adults quality standard. The quality standard defines clinical best practice in diabetes care and should be read in full.
Quality statement
Women of childbearing age with diabetes are regularly informed of the benefits of preconception glycaemic control and of any risks, including medication that may harm an unborn child. Women with diabetes planning a pregnancy are offered preconception care and those not planning a pregnancy are offered advice on contraception.
Quality measure
Structure
a) Evidence of local arrangements to ensure that women of childbearing age with diabetes are regularly informed about the benefits of preconception glycaemic control and of any risks, including medication which may harm an unborn child.
b) Evidence that women with diabetes planning a pregnancy are offered preconception care.
c) Evidence that women with diabetes not planning a pregnancy are offered advice on contraception.
Process
a) Proportion of women of childbearing age with diabetes who are regularly informed about the benefits of preconception glycaemic control and of any risks including medication that may harm an unborn child.
Numerator – the number of women in the denominator informed about preconception glycaemic control and of any risks including medication that may harm an unborn child at their last diabetes consultation.
Denominator – the number of women of childbearing age with diabetes.
b) Proportion of women of childbearing age with diabetes planning a pregnancy who are offered preconception care from an appropriately trained healthcare professional.
Numerator – the number of women in the denominator offered preconception care from an appropriately trained healthcare professional.
Denominator – the number of women of childbearing age with diabetes planning a pregnancy.
c) Proportion of women of childbearing age with diabetes not planning a pregnancy who are offered advice on contraception.
Numerator – the number of women in the denominator offered advice on contraception.
Denominator – the number of women with diabetes not planning a pregnancy.
Description of what the quality statement means for each audience
Service providers ensure local arrangements that provide information to women of childbearing age with diabetes on preconception glycaemic control and any risks including medication that may harm an unborn child, and ensure women with diabetes planning a pregnancy are offered preconception care, and those not planning a pregnancy are offered advice on contraception.
Healthcare professionals ensure women with diabetes of childbearing age are provided with information on preconception glycaemic control and on any risks including medication that may harm an unborn child, and are offered preconception care if they are planning a pregnancy or offered advice on contraception if they are not planning a pregnancy.
Commissioners ensure they commission care pathways that provide preconception advice for women of childbearing age with diabetes, and offer preconception care for women with diabetes planning a pregnancy and advice on contraception for those not planning a pregnancy.
Women of childbearing age who have diabetes are regularly given advice about the benefits of controlling their blood sugar before a pregnancy, and any risks such as medication that might harm an unborn baby. Women with diabetes who are planning a pregnancy are offered care leading up to the pregnancy. Women not planning a pregnancy are offered advice on contraception.
Source clinical guideline references
NICE clinical guideline 63 recommendation 1.1.1.2.
Data source
Structure
a), b) and c) Local data collection. Contained within NICE clinical guideline 87 Audit support organisational criteria, criteria 1-3.
Process
a), b) and c) Local data collection. NICE clinical guideline 87 Audit support clinical criteria, criterion 36.
A pregestational diabetes audit which is currently being piloted and rolled out in 2012 as part of the next phase of the National Diabetes Audit includes the relevant structure and process measures.
Definitions
Medication that may harm an unborn child includes, but is not limited to:
- angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists
- statins
- oral anti-diabetes hypoglycaemic agents with the exception of metformin.
'Women of childbearing age with diabetes' refers to all women with diabetes (excluding gestational diabetes) who have childbearing potential.
Effective interventions library
Successful effective interventions library details
Implementation
Commissioning
These resources include support for commissioners to plan for costs and savings of guidance implementation and meeting quality standards where they apply.
These resources will help to inform discussions with providers about the development of services and may include measurement and action planning tools.
Education and learning
NICE produces resources for individual practitioners, teams and those with a role in education to help improve and assess users' knowledge of relevant NICE guidance and its application in practice.
Service improvement and audit
These resources provide help with planning ahead for NICE guidance, understanding where you are now, and conducting improvement initiatives.
Pathway information
Information for the public
NICE produces information for the public that summarises, in plain English, the recommendations that NICE makes to healthcare and other professionals.
NICE has written information for the public explaining its guidance on each of the following topics.
Patient-centred care
Patients and healthcare professionals have rights and responsibilities as set out in the NHS Constitution for England – all NICE guidance is written to reflect these. Treatment and care should take into account individual needs and preferences. People should have the opportunity to make informed decisions about their care and treatment, in partnership with their healthcare professionals. If someone does not have the capacity to make decisions, healthcare professionals should follow the Department of Health's advice on consent, the code of practice that accompanies the Mental Capacity Act and the supplementary code of practice on deprivation of liberty safeguards. In Wales, healthcare professionals should follow advice on consent from the Welsh Government.
If the person is under 16, healthcare professionals should follow the guidelines in Seeking consent: working with children. If a young person is moving between paediatric and adult services their care should be planned and managed according to the best practice guidance described in the Department of Health's Transition: getting it right for young people.
Updates to this pathway
16 April 2013 Amendment to the recommendations for Ranibizumab for treating diabetic macular oedema (rapid review of technology appraisal guidance 237) (NICE technology appraisal guidance 274) and minor maintenance updates.
26 February 2013 Ranibizumab for treating diabetic macular oedema (rapid review of technology appraisal guidance 237) (NICE technology appraisal guidance 274) and fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant for the treatment of chronic diabetic macular oedema after an inadequate response to prior therapy (NICE technology appraisal guidance 271) added to Diabetes eye damage in the 'Ongoing care for adults with type 1 diabetes' path.
18 January 2013 Minor maintenance updates
30 October 2012 Link to coeliac disease pathway added to Immediate management (including diabetic ketoacidosis) in the 'Managing type 1 diabetes in children and young people' path and to Associated medical conditions in the 'Ongoing care for adults with type 1 diabetes' path.
31 August 2012 Minor maintenance updates
17 July 2012 Minor maintenance updates
12 June 2012 Minor maintenance updates
11 May 2012 Technology appraisal 'Exenatide prolonged-release suspension for injection in combination with oral antidiabetic therapy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes' added to considering dual therapy and considering triple therapy in the blood-glucose-lowering therapy for type 2 diabetes path.
26 January 2012 The foot care for inpatients with diabetes node text was amended.
23 December 2011 Minor maintenance updates
25 October 2011 Minor maintenance updates
Supporting information
Offer once-daily sulfonylurea if adherence is a problem.
Prescribe a sulfonylurea with a low acquisition cost (not glibenclamide) when an insulin secretagogue is indicated.
Educate the person about the risk of hypoglycaemia, particularly if he or she has renal impairment.
Continue thiazolidinedione therapy only if there is a reduction of ≥ 0.5 percentage points in HbA1c in 6 months.
Do not start or continue a thiazolidinedione if the person has heart failure or is at higher risk of fracture.
When selecting a thiazolidinedione, take into account the most up-to-date advice from regulatory authorities, cost, safety and prescribing issues.
Liraglutide 1.8 mg daily is not recommended for the treatment of people with type 2 diabetes.
People with type 2 diabetes currently receiving liraglutide who do not meet the criteria specified, or who are receiving liraglutide 1.8 mg, should have the option to continue their treatment until they and their clinicians consider it appropriate to stop.
Discuss the benefits and risks of a thiazolidinedione with the person, bearing in mind that a thiazolidinedione might be preferable to a DPP-4 inhibitor if:
- the person has marked insulin insensitivity, or
- a DPP-4 inhibitor is contraindicated, or
- the person had a poor response to or did not tolerate a DPP-4 inhibitor in the past.
Continue DPP-4 inhibitor therapy only if there is a reduction of ≥ 0.5 percentage points in HbA1c in 6 months.
Discuss the benefits and risks of a DPP-4 inhibitor with the person, bearing in mind that a DPP-4 inhibitor might be preferable to a thiazolidinedione if:
- further weight gain would cause significant problems, or
- a thiazolidinedione is contraindicated, or
- the person had a poor response to or did not tolerate a thiazolidinedione in the past.
Continue existing treatments (for example, standard analgesics) for people whose neuropathic pain is already effectively managed.
First-line treatment
Titrate upwards to an effective or maximum tolerated dose.
Offer oral duloxetine (starting dose 60 mg/dayA lower starting dose may be appropriate for some people., maximum dose 120 mg/day).
Offer oral amitriptylineAt the time this pathway was created (May 2011) amitriptyline was not licensed for this indication. Informed consent should be obtained and documented. (starting dose 10 mg/day, maximum dose 75 mg/dayHigher doses could be considered in consultation with a specialist pain service.) if duloxetine is contraindicated.
Perform early and regular clinical reviews (see below).
Second-line treatment
If there is unsatisfactory pain reduction at the maximum tolerated dose, offer second-line treatment after informed discussion with the person.
If first-line treatment was with duloxetine, switch to amitriptyline (starting dose 10 mg/day, maximum dose 75 mg/day) or pregabalin (starting dose 150 mg/day Divided into two doses., maximum dose 600 mg/day), or combine with pregabalin.
If first-line treatment was with amitriptyline, switch to or combine with pregabalin (starting dose 150 mg/day , maximum dose 600 mg/day).
Perform early and regular clinical reviews (see below).
Third-line treatment
If satisfactory pain reduction is not achieved with second-line treatment:
- refer the person to a specialist pain service and/or a condition-specific serviceA condition-specific service is a specialist service that provides treatment for the underlying health condition that is causing neuropathic pain. Examples include neurology, diabetology and oncology services. and
- while waiting for referral, consider:
- tramadol (starting dose 50–100 mg not more often than every 4 hours, maximum dose 400 mg/dayAs monotherapy. More conservative titration may be required if used as combination therapy.) instead of or in combinationThe combination of tramadol with amitriptyline, nortriptyline, imipramine or duloxetine is associated with only a low risk of serotonin syndrome (the features of which include confusion, delerium, shivering, sweating, changes in blood pressure and myoclonus). with second-line treatment
- topical lidocaineAt the time this pathway was created (May 2011) topical lidocaine was licensed for post-herpetic neuralgia, but not for other neuropathic pain conditions. for treatment of localised pain for people who are unable to take oral medication because of medical conditions and/or disability.
Early clinical review
After starting or changing a treatment, perform an early clinical review or dosage titration, tolerability and adverse effects to assess suitability of chosen treatment.
Regular clinical reviews
Perform regular clinical reviews to assess and monitor effectiveness of chosen treatment. Include assessment of:
- pain reduction
- adverse effects
- daily activities and participationThe World Health Organization ICF (International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health) defines participation as 'A person's involvement in a life situation.' It includes the following domains: learning and applying knowledge, general tasks and demands, mobility, self-care, domestic life, interpersonal interactions and relationships, major life areas, community, and social and civil life. (such as ability to work and drive)
- mood (in particular, possible depression and/or anxiety)
- quality of sleep
- overall improvement as reported by the person.
Referral
Consider referring the person to a specialist pain service and/or a condition-specific service at any stage, including at initial presentation and at the regular clinical reviews, if:
- they have severe pain or
- their pain significantly limits their daily activities and participation or
- their underlying health condition has deteriorated.
Further information
For more information on the pharmacological management of neuropathic pain in adults in non-specialist settings, see the NICE guideline on neuropathic pain .
NICE is aware that there have been concerns about the associated costs that pregabalin may bring to the NHS as one of the first-line treatment options for adults with neuropathic pain. NICE is considering this issue, and in the meantime the recommendations above continue to represent best practice for the NHS. See the NICE website for the most recent information.
Antihypertensive medications can increase the likelihood of side effects such as orthostatic hypotension in a person with autonomic neuropathy.
Insulin glargine is recommended as a treatment option for people with type 1 diabetes.
Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII or 'insulin pump') therapy is recommended as a treatment option for adults and children 12 years and older with type 1 diabetes mellitus provided that:
- attempts to achieve target haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels with multiple daily injections (MDIs) result in the person experiencing disabling hypoglycaemia. For the purpose of this guidance, disabling hypoglycaemia is defined as the repeated and unpredictable occurrence of hypoglycaemia that results in persistent anxiety about recurrence and is associated with a significant adverse effect on quality of life
or
- HbA1c levels have remained high (that is, at 8.5% or above) on MDI therapy (including, if appropriate, the use of long-acting insulin analogues) despite a high level of care.
It is recommended that CSII therapy be initiated only by a trained specialist team, which should normally comprise a physician with a specialist interest in insulin pump therapy, a diabetes specialist nurse and a dietitian. Specialist teams should provide structured education programmes and advice on diet, lifestyle and exercise appropriate for people using CSII.
Following initiation in adults and children 12 years and older, CSII therapy should only be continued if it results in a sustained improvement in glycaemic control, evidenced by a fall in HbA1c levels, or a sustained decrease in the rate of hypoglycaemic episodes. Appropriate targets for such improvements should be set by the responsible physician, in discussion with the person receiving the treatment or their carer.
Glossary
> 2.5 mg/mmol for men and > 3.5 mg/mmol for women.
Raised blood pressure, higher waist circumference, low HDL cholesterol, high triglyceride.
A team with expertise in protecting the foot; typically members of the team include podiatrists, orthotists and foot care specialists.
A circle centred on the fovea, with a diameter the distance between the temporal border of the optic disc and the fovea.
A team of highly trained specialist podiatrists and orthotists, nurses with training in dressing diabetic foot wounds and diabetologists with expertise in lower limb complications.
Assessing blood glucose control
Assessing blood glucose control
Assessing blood glucose control
HbA1c
Discuss individual HbA1c target level, which may be above the general target of 6.5%.
Encourage maintaining target unless resulting side effects or efforts to achieve this impair quality of life.
Discuss how any reduction in HbA1c towards agreed target benefits future health.
Offer therapy (lifestyle and medication) to help achieve and maintain HbA1c target.
Measure using high-precision methods and report results in DCCT-aligned units.
If HbA1c remains above target, but pre-meal self-monitoring levels remain well controlled (less than 7.0 mmol/litre), consider self-monitoring to detect postprandial hyperglycaemia (greater than 8.5 mmol/litre), and manage to below this level if detected.
Monitoring
Monitor 2–6 monthly (according to individual needs) until stable on unchanging therapyUse measurements taken at intervals of < 3 months to indicate direction of change, rather than a new steady state..
Monitor 6-monthly once blood glucose level and blood glucose-lowering therapy are stable.
Further investigation
Seek advice from a team with specialist expertise in diabetes or clinical biochemistry if there are unexplained discrepancies between HbA1c and other glucose measurements.
Special circumstances
If HbA1c result is invalidDisturbed erythrocyte turnover and abnormal haemoglobin type make HbA1c results invalid., estimate trends in blood glucose control using one of the following:
- fructosamine estimation
- quality-controlled plasma glucose profiles
- total glycated haemoglobin estimation (if abnormal haemoglobins).
Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring of plasma glucose should be available:
- to those on insulin treatment
- to those on oral glucose-lowering medications to provide information on hypoglycaemia
- to assess changes in glucose control resulting from medications and lifestyle change
- to monitor changes during intercurrent illness
- to ensure safety during activities, including driving.
Discuss the purpose of self-monitoring and how to interpret and act on the results.
Offer to a person newly diagnosed only as an integral part of self-management education.
Monitoring
Assess at least annually, and in a structured way:
- self-monitoring skills
- the quality and frequency of testing
- how the results are used
- the impact on quality of life
- the continued benefit
- the equipment used.
Discuss urine glucose monitoring if plasma monitoring is found to be unacceptable.
Quality standards
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Failed to load fragment (default behaviour with no loader supplied): staticcontentfragments/source-guidance-nodeHbA1c equal to or more than 6.5 per cent or agreed target after trial of lifestyle interventions
HbA1c equal to or more than 6.5 per cent or agreed target after trial of lifestyle interventions
HbA1c equal to or more than 6.5 per cent or agreed target after trial of lifestyle interventions
The diabetes quality standard contains quality statements about glycaemic control and medication for people with diabetes.
Quality standards
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Failed to load fragment (default behaviour with no loader supplied): staticcontentfragments/source-guidance-nodeMetformin
Metformin
Metformin
Step up metformin over several weeks to minimise risk of gastrointestinal (GI) side effects.
Consider trial of extended-absorption metformin if GI tolerability prevents the person continuing with metformin.
Review metformin dose if serum creatinine > 130 micromol/litre or estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) < 45 ml/minute/1.73 m2.
Stop metformin if serum creatinine > 150 micromol/litre or the eGFR < 30 ml/minute/1.73 m2.
Prescribe metformin with caution for those at risk of a sudden deterioration in kidney function, and those at risk of eGFR falling to < 45 ml/minute/1.73 m2.
If the person has mild to moderate liver dysfunction or cardiac impairment, discuss benefits of metformin so due consideration can be given to its cardiovascular-protective effects before any decision is made to reduce the dose.
Source guidance
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When to consider sulfonylurea as an alternative to metformin
When to consider sulfonylurea as an alternative to metformin
Consider sulfonylurea here if:
- not overweight (tailor the assessment of body-weight-associated risk according to ethnic group, see the diet pathway for more information)
- metformin is not tolerated or is contraindicated, or
- a rapid therapeutic response is required because of hyperglycaemic symptoms.
Offer once-daily sulfonylurea if adherence is a problem.
Prescribe a sulfonylurea with a low acquisition cost (not glibenclamide) when an insulin secretagogue is indicated.
Educate the person about the risk of hypoglycaemia, particularly if he or she has renal impairment.
Source guidance
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HbA1c equal to or more than 6.5 per cent or agreed target
Considering dual therapy
Considering dual therapy
Considering dual therapy
Sulfonylurea
Offer once-daily sulfonylurea if adherence is a problem.
Prescribe a sulfonylurea with a low acquisition cost (not glibenclamide) when an insulin secretagogue is indicated.
Educate the person about the risk of hypoglycaemia, particularly if he or she has renal impairment.
DPP-4 inhibitors (sitagliptin, vildagliptin)
Consider substituting a DPP-4 inhibitor (sitagliptin, vildagliptin) for sulfonylurea if there is significant risk of hypoglycaemia (or its consequences) or a sulfonylurea is contraindicated or not tolerated.
Consider adding a DPP-4 inhibitor (sitagliptin, vildagliptin) to sulfonylurea if metformin is contraindicated or not tolerated.
Continue DPP-4 inhibitor therapy only if there is a reduction of ≥ 0.5 percentage points in HbA1c in 6 months.
Discuss the benefits and risks of a DPP-4 inhibitor with the person, bearing in mind that a DPP-4 inhibitor might be preferable to a thiazolidinedione if:
- further weight gain would cause significant problems, or
- a thiazolidinedione is contraindicated, or
- the person had a poor response to or did not tolerate a thiazolidinedione in the past.
Thiazolidinedione (pioglitazoneThe Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency has issued new advice on risk of bladder cancer with the anti-diabetic drug pioglitazone. Please refer to the advice when prescribing pioglitazone.)
Consider substituting a thiazolidinedione (pioglitazone) for sulfonylurea if there is significant risk of hypoglycaemia (or its consequences) or a sulfonylurea is contraindicated or not tolerated.
Consider adding a thiazolidinedione (pioglitazone) to sulfonylurea if metformin is contraindicated or not tolerated.
Continue thiazolidinedione therapy only if there is a reduction of ≥ 0.5 percentage points in HbA1c in 6 months.
Do not start or continue a thiazolidinedione if the person has heart failure or is at higher risk of fracture.
When selecting a thiazolidinedione, take into account the most up-to-date advice from regulatory authorities, cost, safety and prescribing issues.
Discuss the benefits and risks of a thiazolidinedione with the person, bearing in mind that a thiazolidinedione might be preferable to a DPP-4 inhibitor if:
- the person has marked insulin insensitivity, or
- a DPP-4 inhibitor is contraindicated, or
- the person had a poor response to or did not tolerate a DPP-4 inhibitor in the past.
Liraglutide
Liraglutide 1.2 mg daily in dual therapy regimens (in combination with metformin or a sulphonylurea) is recommended as an option for the treatment of people with type 2 diabetes, only if:
- the person is intolerant of either metformin or a sulphonylurea, or treatment with metformin or a sulphonylurea is contraindicated, and
- the person is intolerant of thiazolidinediones and DPP-4 inhibitors, or treatment with thiazolidinediones and DPP-4 inhibitors is contraindicated.
Treatment with liraglutide 1.2 mg daily in a dual therapy regimen should only be continued if a beneficial metabolic response has been shown (defined as a reduction of at least 1 percentage point in HbA1c at 6 months).
Liraglutide 1.8 mg daily is not recommended for the treatment of people with type 2 diabetes.
People with type 2 diabetes currently receiving liraglutide who do not meet the criteria specified, or who are receiving liraglutide 1.8 mg, should have the option to continue their treatment until they and their clinicians consider it appropriate to stop.
These recommendations are from liraglutide for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (NICE technology appraisal guidance 203).
NICE has written information for the public explaining the guidance on liraglutide.
Prolonged-release exenatide
Prolonged-release exenatide in dual therapy regimens (that is, in combination with metformin or a sulphonylurea) is recommended as a treatment option for people with type 2 diabetes, as described above for liraglutide; that is, only if:
- the person is intolerant of either metformin or a sulphonylurea, or a treatment with metformin or a sulphonylurea is contraindicated, and
- the person is intolerant of thiazolidinediones and DPP-4 inhibitors, or a treatment with thiazolidinediones and DPP-4 inhibitors is contraindicated.
Treatment with prolonged-release exenatide in a dual therapy regimen should only be continued as described above for liraglutide; that is, if a beneficial metabolic response has been shown (defined as a reduction of at least 1 percentage point in HbA1c [11 mmol/mol] at 6 months).
These recommendations are from exenatide prolonged-release suspension for injection in combination with oral antidiabetic therapy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (NICE technology appraisal guidance 248).
NICE has written information for the public explaining the guidance on exenatide.
Rapid-acting insulin secretagogue
Consider a rapid-acting insulin secretagogue for people with erratic lifestyles.
Implementation tools
Failed to load fragment (default behaviour with no loader supplied): staticcontentfragments/implementation-node-multipleContinued monitoring of HbA1c
Continued monitoring of HbA1c
Consider acarbose if person is unable to use other oral glucose-lowering medications
Consider acarbose if person is unable to use other oral glucose-lowering medications
Ongoing monitoring of HbA1c
Ongoing monitoring of HbA1c
HbA1c equal to or more than 7.5 per cent or agreed target
HbA1c equal to or more than 7.5 per cent or agreed target
HbA1c still equal to or more than 7.5 per cent or agreed target
HbA1c still equal to or more than 7.5 per cent or agreed target
Considering triple therapy
Considering triple therapy
Considering triple therapy
Sitagliptin or pioglitazoneThe Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency has issued new advice on risk of bladder cancer with the anti-diabetic drug pioglitazone. Please refer to the advice when prescribing pioglitazone.
Consider adding sitagliptin or pioglitazone instead of insulin if insulin is unacceptable (because of employment, social, recreational or other personal issues, or obesity).
Continue DPP-4 inhibitor therapy only if there is a reduction of ≥ 0.5 percentage points in HbA1c in 6 months.
Discuss the benefits and risks of a DPP-4 inhibitor with the person, bearing in mind that a DPP-4 inhibitor might be preferable to a thiazolidinedione if:
- further weight gain would cause significant problems, or
- a thiazolidinedione is contraindicated, or
- the person had a poor response to or did not tolerate a thiazolidinedione in the past.
Continue thiazolidinedione therapy only if there is a reduction of ≥ 0.5 percentage points in HbA1c in 6 months.
Do not start or continue a thiazolidinedione if the person has heart failure or is at higher risk of fracture.
When selecting a thiazolidinedione, take into account the most up-to-date advice from regulatory authorities, cost, safety and prescribing issues.
Discuss the benefits and risks of a thiazolidinedione with the person, bearing in mind that a thiazolidinedione might be preferable to a DPP-4 inhibitor if:
- the person has marked insulin insensitivity, or
- a DPP-4 inhibitor is contraindicated, or
- the person had a poor response to or did not tolerate a DPP-4 inhibitor in the past.
Exenatide
Twice-daily exenatide
Consider adding exenatide to metformin and a sulfonylurea if:
- BMI ≥ 35 kg/m2 in people of European descentWith adjustment for other ethnic groups. and there are problems associated with high weight, or
- BMI < 35 kg/m2 and insulin is unacceptable because of occupational implications or weight loss would benefit other comorbidities.
Continue exenatide only if the person has a reduction in HbA1c of ≥ 1.0 percentage point and ≥ 3% of initial body weight in 6 months.
Discuss the benefits of exenatide to allow the person to make an informed decision.
Prolonged-release exenatide
Prolonged-release exenatide in triple therapy regimens (that is, in combination with metformin and a sulphonylurea, or metformin and a thiazolidinedione) is recommended as a treatment option for people with type 2 diabetes as described above for twice-daily exenatide; that is, when control of blood glucose remains or becomes inadequate (HbA1c = 7.5% [59 mmol/mol] or other higher level agreed with the individual), and the person has:
- a BMI = 35 kg/m2 in those of European family origin (with appropriate adjustment for other ethnic groups) and specific psychological or medical problems associated with high body weight or
- a BMI < 35 kg/m2, and therapy with insulin would have significant occupational implications or weight loss would benefit other significant obesity-related comorbidities.
Treatment with prolonged-release exenatide in a triple therapy regimen should only be continued as described above for twice-daily exenatide; that is, if a beneficial metabolic response has been shown (defined as a reduction of at least 1 percentage point in HbA1c [11 mmol/mol] and a weight loss of at least 3% of initial body weight at 6 months).
These recommendations are from exenatide prolonged-release suspension for injection in combination with oral antidiabetic therapy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (NICE technology appraisal guidance 248).
NICE has written information for the public explaining the guidance on exenatide.
Liraglutide
Liraglutide 1.2 mg daily in triple therapy regimens (in combination with metformin and a sulphonylurea, or metformin and a thiazolidinedione) is recommended as an option for the treatment of people with type 2 diabetes, only when control of blood glucose remains or becomes inadequate ({HbA1c ≥ 7.5%}, or other higher level agreed with the individual), and the person has:
- a body mass index (BMI) ≥ 35 kg/m2 in those of European descent (with appropriate adjustment for other ethnic groups) and specific psychological or medical problems associated with high body weight, or
- a BMI < 35 kg/m2, and therapy with insulin would have significant occupational implications or weight loss would benefit other significant obesity-related comorbidities.
Treatment with liraglutide 1.2 mg daily in a triple therapy regimen should only be continued if a beneficial metabolic response has been shown (defined as a reduction of at least 1 percentage point in HbA1c and a weight loss of at least 3% of initial body weight at 6 months).
Liraglutide 1.8 mg daily is not recommended for the treatment of people with type 2 diabetes.
People with type 2 diabetes currently receiving liraglutide who do not meet the criteria specified, or who are receiving liraglutide 1.8 mg, should have the option to continue their treatment until they and their clinicians consider it appropriate to stop.
These recommendations are from liraglutide for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (NICE technology appraisal guidance 203).
NICE has written information for the public explaining the guidance on liraglutide.
Implementation tools
Failed to load fragment (default behaviour with no loader supplied): staticcontentfragments/implementation-node-multipleContinue monitoring HbA1c
Continue monitoring HbA1c
HbA1c continues equal to or more than 7.5 per cent or agreed target
HbA1c continues equal to or more than 7.5 per cent or agreed target
Starting insulin, particularly if hyperglycaemia is marked
Starting insulin, particularly if hyperglycaemia is marked
Starting insulin, particularly if hyperglycaemia is marked
If other measures do not keep HbA1c to < 7.5% (or other agreed target), discuss benefits and risks of insulin treatment.
Initiate with a structured programme. For more information see the patient education section of this pathway.
Continue with metformin and sulfonylurea (and acarbose, if used), but only continue other drugs that are licensed for use with insulin. Review the use of sulfonylurea if hypoglycaemia occurs.
Begin with human NPH insulin taken at bedtime or twice daily according to need.
Alternatively, consider a once-daily long-acting insulin analogue (insulin detemir, insulin glargine) if:
- the person needs help with injecting insulin and a long-acting insulin analogue would reduce injections from twice to once daily, or
- the person's lifestyle is restricted by recurrent symptomatic hypoglycaemic episodes, or
- the person would otherwise need twice-daily basal insulin injections plus oral glucose-lowering drugs, or
- the person cannot use the device to inject NPH insulin.
Consider twice-daily biphasic human insulin (pre-mixed) (particularly if HbA1c ≥ 9.0%). A once-daily regimen may be an option.
Consider pre-mixed preparations of insulin analogues (including short-acting insulin analogues) rather than pre-mixed human insulin preparations if:
- immediate injection before a meal is preferred, or
- hypoglycaemia is a problem, or
- blood glucose levels rise markedly after meals.
Consider switching to a long-acting insulin analogue (insulin detemir, insulin glargine) from NPH insulin if the person:
- does not reach target HbA1c because of hypoglycaemia, or
- has significant hypoglycaemia with NPH insulin irrespective of HbA1c level, or
- cannot use the delivery device for NPH insulin but could administer a long-acting insulin analogue, or
- needs help to inject insulin and could reduce the number of injections with a long-acting analogue.
Insulin pump therapy (CSII)
CSII therapy is not recommended for the treatment of people with type 2 diabetes mellitus
This recommendation is from continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (NICE technology appraisal guidance 151).
Insulin delivery devices
Offer education to a person who requires insulin about using an injection device (usually a pen injector and cartridge or a disposable pen) that they and/or their carer find easy to use.
If a person has a manual or visual disability and requires insulin, offer an appropriate device or adaptation that can be used successfully.
Appropriate local arrangements should be in place for the disposal of sharps.
Quality standards
Failed to load fragment (default behaviour with no loader supplied): staticcontentfragments/quality-standard-node-singleFurther monitoring of HbA1c
Further monitoring of HbA1c
HbA1c level continues at equal to or more than 7.5 per cent or agreed target
HbA1c level continues at equal to or more than 7.5 per cent or agreed target
Intensifying insulin regimen and considering adding pioglitazone
Intensifying insulin regimen and considering adding pioglitazone
Intensifying insulin regimen and considering adding pioglitazone
Increase insulin dose and intensify regimen over time.
Monitor those using basal insulin regimens (NPH or a long-acting analogue [insulin detemir, insulin glargine]) for need for short-acting insulin before meals or pre-mixed insulin.
Monitor those using pre-mixed insulin once or twice daily for need for further injection of short-acting insulin before meals or change to mealtime plus basal regimen.
PioglitazoneThe Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency has issued new advice on risk of bladder cancer with the anti-diabetic drug pioglitazone. Please refer to the advice when prescribing pioglitazone. with insulin
- a thiazolidenedione has previously had a marked glucose-lowering effect, or
- blood glucose control is inadequate with high-dose insulin.
Continue thiazolidinedione therapy only if there is a reduction of ≥ 0.5 percentage points in HbA1c in 6 months.
Do not start or continue a thiazolidinedione if the person has heart failure or is at higher risk of fracture.
When selecting a thiazolidinedione, take into account the most up-to-date advice from regulatory authorities, cost, safety and prescribing issues.
Discuss the benefits and risks of a thiazolidinedione with the person.
Quality standards
Failed to load fragment (default behaviour with no loader supplied): staticcontentfragments/quality-standard-node-singleSource guidance
Failed to load fragment (default behaviour with no loader supplied): staticcontentfragments/source-guidance-nodePaths in this pathway
- Managing type 1 diabetes
- Managing type 1 diabetes in children and young people
- Ongoing care for children and young people with type 1 diabetes
- Managing type 1 diabetes in adults
- Diet and lifestyle advice for adults with type 1 diabetes
- Ongoing care for adults with type 1 diabetes
- Managing arterial risk in adults with type 1 diabetes
- Managing type 2 diabetes
- Blood-glucose-lowering therapy for type 2 diabetes
- Managing blood lipids in type 2 diabetes
- Managing blood pressure in type 2 diabetes
- Identifying and managing long-term complications
- Foot care for people with diabetes
- Foot care for people with type 2 diabetes
- Foot care for people with type 1 diabetes
- Foot care for inpatients with diabetes
Pathway created: May 2011 Last updated: April 2013
Copyright © 2013 National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. All Rights Reserved.